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Incumbent industries have a history of challenging new technologies that disrupt the established way they do business. AT&T sued to keep everything from the answering machine to the Hush-A-Phone out of the market. Yesterday?s news that all the major TV networks are filing suit against streaming TV service Aereo is the latest in a long line of battles about how technology evolves.
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Monitor and discipline sports are occasions that carry to the fore the prowess of man. By means of out historical past Kings and rulers have held contests to commemorate an event or simply for fun and recreation. That is the origin of the track and discipline sports activities that normally include races and feats of strength like the Javelin throw and the discus throw. The ancient civilizations in Greece and India all had monitor and subject sports activities, however the Greek origin is effectively documented and there are data out
Sports Fitness and Recreation
Source: http://sportsfitnessrecreation.blogspot.com/2012/02/history-of-track-and-field-sports.html
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In order to form an opinion on the matter, it would be useful to know if the treatments have any effect.
You know... evidence based science?
Model-based science is all the rage nowadays, and that we can't allow anything to happen unless we have a clear understanding of why it should happen before we try.
The debate as to whether these people should be labelled snake-oil salesmen or experimentalists would seem to rest on this. Is this government intrusion into people's right to choose, or a regulatory agency stepping in to keep people safe?
We need to know the risks and potential benefits in addition to the opinions of an insular, jargonized profession.
It's not always about trusting the experts.
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A species is one of those things that is harder to define than it looks. While it?s clear that (for example) a rat is a different species than a dog, the more closely related animals get, the harder it is to properly put them into species. Usual definitions involve the sharing of physical characteristics (although the physical characteristics shared between a Great Dane and a Shih Tzu can be harder to?ascertain?) and the?fundamental?idea of breeding. If two species can interbreed to produce fertile offspring they are usually considered the same species. This still runs into problems; some animals can interbreed but just don?t (for example if they live on opposite sides of a mountain range) some animals can interbreed and produce mostly asterile offspring with the occasional ?random fertile quirk, while some animals could potentially interbreed but it?s rather hard to imagine (again, with the Great Dane and the Shih Tzu)
I have no idea what crossing these two dogs would produce. Possibly some kind of war pompom. Image credit below.
When it comes to the world of microorganisms, however, species becomes even more of a murky concept. For bacteria and archaea even the concept of interbreeding doesn?t really exist. Bacteria don?t require all that squishy ?sex? stuff to produce more bacteria, they just?divide?themselves in half and filch random DNA from their mates, nearby bacteria and the general environment. However at the same time it?s still useful to be able to disinguish bacterial species; for example to recognise that S. aureus is a very different creature from an E. coli. All bacteria are not the same; but if they can share genes so easily, why are there such clearly different species? Why are there any differences between them at all?
Work done on archaea, the sadly ignored cousins of bacteria, is starting to give more of an idea about how a ?species? in microorganisms form. Studies done on the?thermoacidophilic (high-temperature and low-pH loving) archaeon?Sulfolobus islandicus gathered from a hot spring in Russia shows some mechanisms that, in these strains at least, leads to separate archaea species forming rather than one homologous population.
A group of archaea. These ones are halobacteria - salt lovers - rather than the thermoacidophiles in the study. Credit for the image is below.
The paper highlights two main theories as to how species form in microorganisms. ?Species? in this instance is defined as lineages with discrete clusters of sequence diversity. Theory one is the ?niche? theory, the idea that selection is ecological, and ?ecotypes? (i.e almost-species) are kept because they?re specialising themselves to fit into a certain niche. If you?re trying to be the best at living in a hot pond, genes to help you cope with ice-crystals aren?t going to be much use.
The second theory is that there are genetic barriers that cause some clusters of micro-organisms to become genetically distinct and species-like. If the mutations within your own genetic material are more likely to be passed on than genes picked up from nearby organisms then it genetic clusters of species will form. This is all to do with the rates of mutation and recombination, and is explained much better (with many more paragraphs) in the reference below for those who are interested. It can also involve things like restriction enzymes, which chop up DNA. If one archaea line contains enzymes that break down the DNA of another line they aren?t going to be?successfully?sharing DNA any time soon.
It could also be a bit of a mix between they two. If tiny amounts of DNA are being shared, while large changes are made to the chromosome due to niche-specialisation, then the species fits under theory one. If more DNA is being shared with fellow micro-organisms, and each one is not mutating much, then theory two is clearly more?relevant. For different species, in different conditions, speciation may occur using different methods.
For the?Sulfolobus islandicus however, there?s now a lot more information on how species and clusters form. The researchers looked at two separate lineages within the hot springs, and found that although the archaea were?capable?of sharing DNA, they were none-the-less starting to become?ecologically distinct and evolutionarily independent. Just to be clear, there was no physical barrier stopping them. They were all just swimming around in close proximity in the same warm springs. There weren?t even biochemical barriers stopping them, the DNA was?capable?of surviving in both strains without being chewed up by enzymes or otherwise harmed.
An unrelated picture of a Sulfolobus archaea. If you look closely, you can see little white viruses stuck to the surface. Which has nothing to do with this article but is still really cool! Credit below.
So are these two separate strains ?species?? Not really, they still share DNA, but they seem to be on their way to becoming distinct species. Archaea, like bacteria, will always be?capable?of sharing DNA with each other. What is fascinating here is that sometimes, it appears, they just don?t want to. It may be that species in micro-organisms form less because of?barriers?that physically prevent gene flow, and more because the organisms?themselves?simply don?t want to share DNA anymore.
After all, if you?ve spent the last few hundred years specifically evolving to fit one precise little niche, how much help is DNA from someone who hasn?t?
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Ref 1:Cadillo-Quiroz H, Didelot X, Held NL, Herrera A, Darling A, Reno ML, Krause DJ, & Whitaker RJ (2012). Patterns of gene flow define species of thermophilic archaea. PLoS biology, 10 (2) PMID: 22363207
Credit for image 1.
Credit for image 2.
Credit for image 3.
Source: http://rss.sciam.com/click.phdo?i=d384b310b31fc5ca4828f8f513b4bbd5
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Quinnipiac is adding a new Philosophy Program to its Undergraduate Curriculum starting in the fall.
The department has worked to create and develop the few more courses needed to establish a full-fledged philosophy program. The department was also given permission to hire two new full-time philosophy professors, who will begin working in August.
The Faculty Senate proposed this idea to its Academic Policies Committee last fall, and the Senate approved of the inclusion of the major at its first meeting in January. The State of Connecticut?s Department of Education still needs to certify the major, which is leaning towards approval soon, according to Sean Duffy, chair of the philosophy and political science department.
Many Arts & Sciences faculty members, like Duffy, have waited long enough for this change.
?[It?s] about time that Quinnipiac added this major,? Duffy said. ?It was really quite embarrassing that we didn?t have it.?
Students have left Quinnipiac because they could not major in philosophy, while other students elected to design their own personalized, independent major in philosophy, according to Duffy. Five students have chosen to do this in the past three years and there are three independent philosophy majors on campus right now.
Presently, about 300 students take philosophy 101 every semester, and other courses such as ?Ethics and Human Values,? ?Logical Reasoning,? and ?Philosophy of Sex and Love? have always attracted a great deal of students, according to Duffy.
The philosophy club SOPHIA?s active voice on campus also gave the philosophy department the idea to expand.
?It just makes sense to offer a philosophy degree,? Duffy said. ?Philosophy is one of the ? if not the oldest academic pursuits in the Western tradition of which Quinnipiac is a part. It?s all about developing the mind, the ability to think critically, reflectively and logically.?
The department will be offering about 25 to 30 200-level philosophy courses. This will include a senior seminar, mandatory core courses and several electives ranging from historical courses to topical courses. The program will also offer several more specialized courses on applied ethics, particular philosophers and specific philosophical questions.
Quinnipiac has had a philosophy minor for many years, which has facilitated the structuring of the philosophy program, as many of the courses needed for a major are already in place.
Duffy noted in particular that with a medical school being added to the University in a few years, there will be numerous opportunities to create interdisciplinary courses in medical and biomedical ethics, such as the philosophy of science. These courses, according to Duffy, could enhance the education of those interested in pursuing a career in medicine and other health professions.
The department has developed about six new upper-level courses, and have converted some courses offered on an ad-hoc basis in the past few years to become permanent options in the course catalog, Duffy said.
?There will always be a rich selection of courses to choose from,? Duffy said. ?Whether a student is interested in majoring Philosophy or is simply interested in supplementing their major course of study with interesting and mind-building courses in philosophy.?
All new courses have been submitted to the Registrar, and descriptions will soon be available for viewing online and in the printed Course Catalog.
?We aren?t limiting our goals to working only with Philosophy majors and minors,? Duffy said. ?We?re very much interested in being a central and integral part of the culture at Quinnipiac.?
Source: http://www.quchronicle.com/2012/02/philosophy-department-expanding-major-coming/
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